Critical Review on White's "Soukouss of Sell-Out?"

In this reading, White examines the relationship between commercialization and the understanding of culture and music as a local product that becomes commercialized. White specifically observes soukouss, defining it as "a particular form of Congolese music that targets primarily non-Congolese audiences." 

While White portrays soukouss as a form of music that is purposely marketed for foreign audiences, this view is challenged on pg. 45 when Loukassa ya Mbongo says, "There are more than 300 ethnic groups in the Congo . . . One group talks and the group next to them doesn't understand a thing . . . And there is one language that reunites us, Lingala. That is our advantage. When you're in Lumbumbashi you'll hear other music, but when we play soukouss it brings everyone together." While White may seem to believe soukouss is marketed for foreigners, does this quote show otherwise? Does it show that soukouss is actually a tool to unite a diverse Congo around a genre of music that can be identified with Congo as a whole rather than a specific group of people within Congo?

Ethnographic Description

       The performance event I attended for my ethnographic description was “Contemporary African Dance with Jamal Jackson” through the Rhythm of Change event here at Brown. The event was held at the Ashamu dance studio. The audience consisted solely of Shandell and I who objectively observed from the audience seating area. We faced the performers, Jamal, and the drummers who were opposite of us. A very diverse group of individuals characterized the participants/performers. No racial or ethnic group dominated amongst the performers, mostly females participated but also a handful of males were present. Most participants were undergraduate students from Brown while some perhaps were not. Attendance was open to all but it seemed that a fee was required. While some participants attended with friends, a substantial number of people arrived individually. Experience level varied from beginners to more experienced dancers. Jamal, taught and led the performers, and helped guide the dancers through different movements and certain musical cues. The music was performed by four male drummers who were either African or of African-American descent, one of them being Seydou Coulibaly. Two of the drummers played by striking the drums by hand, one played two adjacent drums with sticks, and another played one drum with sticks.

Jamal began by explaining to the performers that he likes to “break from the traditional and do a more contemporary interpretation of dance.” He began by leading a warm-up of stretches to shake out and loosen up the muscles. Participants were either barefoot or wore socks and wore loose and comfortable clothing to allow movement. The warm-up was accompanied by music played by the drummers, who performed a steady musical accompaniment to the dance which seemed to be characterized by polyrhythm and a steady tempo. As the warm-up became more active, the musical tempo and volume increased. Jamal’s role was central in introducing new techniques of movement or dance. He started with simpler movements in the beginning and then moved onto more difficult sequences further into the event. Each new sequence was characterized by a different musical accompaniment to match the performance. It accented different sounds and signaling different cues. Jamal communicated to the dancers which movements to do, which notes to listen for through verbalizing them, and then he performed which movements matched what portion of the music. Dancers were broken into smaller groups when performing as they went down the studio and towards the drummers. They would first observe and motion along, but after enough time practicing they could sufficiently integrate it into a sequence of movements that fit together with the musical cues. These cues helped signaled certain foot or arm movements. It seemed to be a very integrated experience as the drummers looked to Jamal to know what rhythm to play, Jamal would convey to the dancers the movements to fit with the music, and the drummers and dancers would interact so that certain cues could help assist them through the performance. It was a very encouraging environment and a lot of effort was required by everyone participating in the experience.

       We were able to speak with some of the drummers at the end who gave us more details about their role and the instruments. We were told that the instruments they used were the djembe and the dun dun of West Africa, more specifically from Mali or Guinea. The djembe has three sounds that are played, while the dun dun has one sound which is used to keep a constant beat. Every drummer plays their own accompaniment and it all comes together as the music that was heard, but at times the djembe may improvise to match what the dancers are doing. The djembe follows what the dancers do, and the dancers follow the dun dun because it helps them keep their place. Overall it was an enjoyable experience and I would recommend it to others interested in African music and dance.

Critical Review on "Agbekor Music & Dance of the Ewe People"

In this article, the history and significance of the Agebekor, a traditional type of singing and drumming that originated as a war dance among the Ewe people, is discussed and the musical components of it are analyzed.
Something that stood out to me in the article was how the author conveyed Agbekor and the importance of lineage among the Ewe as sacrosanct. Yet on pg. 94 it seems that the tradition has been lost in many villages and has become a source of national sponsorship in Ghana as a professional performing-art troupe to attempt to maintain its significance. Has Agbekor, and other nationally sponsored performing-art troupes, lost touch with its cultural importance by becoming more formalized? In reference to the Agawu and Merriam articles, is it possible to convey the significance and uniqueness of Agbekor if the author continually makes use of an "Etic" ("outsider") viewpoint and "prescriptive notation" when he is analyzing/describing Ewe culture and Agbekor music?

Final Project Intended Research Materials/Scholarly Sources

I have listed below scholarly sources which I consider using for as my research materials for my final project:

1. Welsh, David. "Ethnicity in Sub-Saharan Africa." International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-) , Vol. 72, No. 3, Ethnicity and International Relations (Jul., 1996), pp. 477-491

- Welsh examines the association of ethnic identities with the colonial period and the 'instrumentalist' contention that ethnicity was invented for political purposes. He examines the coping mechanisms African states use in dealing with ethnicity, and pays particular attention to the 'hegemonical exchange model' of Donald Rothchild. Welsh concludes with a discussion of attitudes towards ethnicity in post-apartheid South Africa. I intend to use this article to try to understand the context of Kwaito within the township culture and perhaps try to gain a greater understanding of its connection with the concept of "hegemony" and colonialism.

2. Swartz, Sharlene. "Is Kwaito South African Hip-hop? Why the Answer Matters and Who It Matters To." The World of Music , Vol. 50, No. 2, Kwaito (2008), pp. 15-33

- In this paper Swarz asks whether South Africa's kwaito music is an indigenous form of hip-hop or what she calls an "original 'spectacular vernacular'", and considers how the difference between kwaito and hip-hop is constructed and performed. I'm not sure what a "spectacular vernacular" is but hope to see some clarification of it within her article. Swartz says that while kwaito's provenance is similar to that of hip-hop, understanding the complex politics of kwaito deepens our understanding of identity and resistance in the context of the South African racial taxonomy and political history. She finally intends to conclude by interpreting the style or "reading" some of the cultural artefacts associated with kwaito, the ambivalent relationship between young "black" South Africans and the various dominant groups against which they rail is highlighted. I hope to use this resource for insight into the uniqueness of kwaito culture.

3. Steingo, Gavin. "The Politicization of 'Kwaito': From the 'Party Politic' to Party Politics."

Black Music Research Journal , Vol. 27, No. 1 (Spring, 2007), pp. 23-44

- Steingo observes how kwaito has been drawn into the political sphere. He analyzes how kwaito as an “apolitical” concept becomes political through its opposition to the political. This concept seems confusing but through a deeper reading I believe it could present some interesting insight into the political nature of kwaito.

4. Steingo, Gavin. "Historicizing Kwaito." African Music, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2008), pp. 76-91

- Steingo provides a deeper historical context that seeks to divert from the typical claims of most scholars with regards to the history of kwaito in South Africa, and attempts to provide a more careful assessment to kwaito history by observing other academic works. I think this resource will be useful in dispelling misconceptions and can provide a more accurate historical narrative of kwaito music's development within South Africa.

5. Sayto, Sizwe. "A Linguistic Study of Kwaito" The World of Music , Vol. 50, No. 2, Kwaito (2008), pp. 91-102

- Sizwe Observes “the creative uses of kwaito-speech, and the process underlying its creativity, exploring the etymology of selected examples.” He notes that kwaito-speak is a variation of language spoken by kwaito fans in South Africa. Since Sizwe analyzes how kwaito-speak is important in understanding the kwaito subculture, I think it will be a very relevant source of information. 

6. Bosch, Tanja."Kwaito on Community Radio: The Case of Bush Radio in Cape Town, South Africa."

The World of Music , Vol. 50, No. 2, Kwaito (2008), pp. 75-89

-Through interviews and observation of Bush Radio in Cape Town, South Africa, the article observes Bush Radio’s use of kwaito music, and how it contributes towards development of community. Bosch puts kwaito within a cultural studies framework and argues the strategic applications of kwaito that Bush Radio employees use to create and sustain “a divided community in search of a new black identity. I believe this case study will be useful in observing the use of kwaito music as a political or social tool. 

7. Robertson, Mary. "The Constraints of Colour: Popular Music Listening and the Interrogation of ‘Race’ in Post-Apartheid South Africa." Popular Music (2011), 30, pp 455-470.

 - Robertson's abstract notes: "In post-apartheid popular culture, there is a tension between the persistence of ‘race’ as a structural category of difference, and its transformation in the lives of young South Africans. Through the examination of case-studies, I explore how popular music may allow for the mediation of this tension. Drawing on Heidegger's notion of an ‘equipmental whole’ to conceptualise ‘race’, I discuss the specific ways in which individuals may come to an awareness of the potential fluidity of racial identities, and the role of music-listening practices in this process. I argue that reflecting on articulations between music and racial categories allowed listeners to critique understandings of ‘race’ underpinning post-apartheid political discourse. Such a critique enabled listeners either instrumentally to affirm a reconfigured understanding of a racial identity, or to reject ‘race’ as a meaningful category of difference altogether." There are a lot of key pieces of information to pay attention to in this article but it will be useful in understanding how music can be used among youth to transcend racial identities. 

Critical Review on "African Musical Rhythm and Concepts of Time-Reckoning" by Alan Merriam

In this reading, Merriam distinguishes the concepts of time-reckoning from a Western point of view, a Western point of view in regards to African musical rhythm, and the African concept of time-reckoning (both in specific cases and as a generalization). He recognizes key assumptions that are commonly attributed to the African musical rhythm from an "outsider looking in" perspective. Merriam then is able to provide details about differing concepts of time-reckoning and how this can affect concepts of rhythm, culture, or music.

 The Western view tends to be characterized by separating time into a distance that moves further and further away from the starting point. In the Western view, time is viewed as a constant source divides up our moments, experiences, outlook on life and our daily functions. In applying the Western viewpoint on African musical rhythm, many scholars are able to distinguish Western terms that are associated with a rhythm or beat that is able to keep the performance in time, and serves a repetitive function. This Western viewpoint imposed on African musical rhythm does not compare the varying African concepts of time and how it applies to culture and music. In his final section, Merriam does observe Time from the African point of view, in which he distinguishes varying outlooks of time as: "non-repetitive" (454), "non linear" and "not reckoned as a distance", or "measured as an apparatus" (456). Merriam even mentions a scholar's general observation that time within Africa is organized primarily in terms of the past and present but never the future, and the concept of a numerical calendar is non existent. Considering the observations brought forward in this reading, I am curious to ask: Can we distinguish something unique about different cultures and musical styles within Africa by looking at the ways time is perceived, and compare it to the way the Western-world observes time and its impact on Western culture & music?

Final Project Proposal

For my final project proposal I would like to focus on Kwaito as a social and cultural tool for black South Africans. In looking at this, I would like to observe the ways in which the emergence and creation of Kwaito music has served as a way for people to voice discontent with issues occurring within society. I would further like to connect Kwaito with its significance in creating an identity for the people within the townships, with a particular focus on its important role for the youth.

Considering Kwaito's emergence from South Africa, and more specifically townships within South Africa, it is important to observe the historical effects of Apartheid, and the social and cultural implications of Apartheid in the emergence of Kwaito music.

Critical Review on "The Rapper as Modern" by Patricia Tang

In Tang's article, she examines the development of the hip-hop scene in Senegal by connecting the ways in which American hip-hop has been influenced by its African roots, and has then come full circle to influence Africa with an emergence of its popularity within 1980s Senegal. In examining the outburst of Senegalese rappers, she distinguishes the connections that are made between the traditional concept of "griot" or "djelly", and the notion of the "modern griot".

Tang portrays the notion of griot, as it is traditionally known, as a historically situated, romanticized concept "from which the modern griot has evolved over time" (81). However it is noted that the concept of griot has been falling out of popularity due to the negative connotations surrounding it.While hip-hop in America is viewed as the evolution of the African griot, couldn't it be argued that it is actually the Senegalese rappers who have evolved the role of griot into the "modern griot"? American artists, such as Kanye West, do not seem to even recognize the negative conception of griot that has been increasingly attributed to the term. In fact, Kanye West seems to further the negative image of the griot by associating the term with his own public statements and actions. Thus, shouldn't the Senagalese artists coin a new term for the "modern griot", just as they have done with mbalax, to distinguish it from the connotations and image of a traditional griot?