Final Project Intended Research Materials/Scholarly Sources

I have listed below scholarly sources which I consider using for as my research materials for my final project:

1. Welsh, David. "Ethnicity in Sub-Saharan Africa." International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-) , Vol. 72, No. 3, Ethnicity and International Relations (Jul., 1996), pp. 477-491

- Welsh examines the association of ethnic identities with the colonial period and the 'instrumentalist' contention that ethnicity was invented for political purposes. He examines the coping mechanisms African states use in dealing with ethnicity, and pays particular attention to the 'hegemonical exchange model' of Donald Rothchild. Welsh concludes with a discussion of attitudes towards ethnicity in post-apartheid South Africa. I intend to use this article to try to understand the context of Kwaito within the township culture and perhaps try to gain a greater understanding of its connection with the concept of "hegemony" and colonialism.

2. Swartz, Sharlene. "Is Kwaito South African Hip-hop? Why the Answer Matters and Who It Matters To." The World of Music , Vol. 50, No. 2, Kwaito (2008), pp. 15-33

- In this paper Swarz asks whether South Africa's kwaito music is an indigenous form of hip-hop or what she calls an "original 'spectacular vernacular'", and considers how the difference between kwaito and hip-hop is constructed and performed. I'm not sure what a "spectacular vernacular" is but hope to see some clarification of it within her article. Swartz says that while kwaito's provenance is similar to that of hip-hop, understanding the complex politics of kwaito deepens our understanding of identity and resistance in the context of the South African racial taxonomy and political history. She finally intends to conclude by interpreting the style or "reading" some of the cultural artefacts associated with kwaito, the ambivalent relationship between young "black" South Africans and the various dominant groups against which they rail is highlighted. I hope to use this resource for insight into the uniqueness of kwaito culture.

3. Steingo, Gavin. "The Politicization of 'Kwaito': From the 'Party Politic' to Party Politics."

Black Music Research Journal , Vol. 27, No. 1 (Spring, 2007), pp. 23-44

- Steingo observes how kwaito has been drawn into the political sphere. He analyzes how kwaito as an “apolitical” concept becomes political through its opposition to the political. This concept seems confusing but through a deeper reading I believe it could present some interesting insight into the political nature of kwaito.

4. Steingo, Gavin. "Historicizing Kwaito." African Music, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2008), pp. 76-91

- Steingo provides a deeper historical context that seeks to divert from the typical claims of most scholars with regards to the history of kwaito in South Africa, and attempts to provide a more careful assessment to kwaito history by observing other academic works. I think this resource will be useful in dispelling misconceptions and can provide a more accurate historical narrative of kwaito music's development within South Africa.

5. Sayto, Sizwe. "A Linguistic Study of Kwaito" The World of Music , Vol. 50, No. 2, Kwaito (2008), pp. 91-102

- Sizwe Observes “the creative uses of kwaito-speech, and the process underlying its creativity, exploring the etymology of selected examples.” He notes that kwaito-speak is a variation of language spoken by kwaito fans in South Africa. Since Sizwe analyzes how kwaito-speak is important in understanding the kwaito subculture, I think it will be a very relevant source of information. 

6. Bosch, Tanja."Kwaito on Community Radio: The Case of Bush Radio in Cape Town, South Africa."

The World of Music , Vol. 50, No. 2, Kwaito (2008), pp. 75-89

-Through interviews and observation of Bush Radio in Cape Town, South Africa, the article observes Bush Radio’s use of kwaito music, and how it contributes towards development of community. Bosch puts kwaito within a cultural studies framework and argues the strategic applications of kwaito that Bush Radio employees use to create and sustain “a divided community in search of a new black identity. I believe this case study will be useful in observing the use of kwaito music as a political or social tool. 

7. Robertson, Mary. "The Constraints of Colour: Popular Music Listening and the Interrogation of ‘Race’ in Post-Apartheid South Africa." Popular Music (2011), 30, pp 455-470.

 - Robertson's abstract notes: "In post-apartheid popular culture, there is a tension between the persistence of ‘race’ as a structural category of difference, and its transformation in the lives of young South Africans. Through the examination of case-studies, I explore how popular music may allow for the mediation of this tension. Drawing on Heidegger's notion of an ‘equipmental whole’ to conceptualise ‘race’, I discuss the specific ways in which individuals may come to an awareness of the potential fluidity of racial identities, and the role of music-listening practices in this process. I argue that reflecting on articulations between music and racial categories allowed listeners to critique understandings of ‘race’ underpinning post-apartheid political discourse. Such a critique enabled listeners either instrumentally to affirm a reconfigured understanding of a racial identity, or to reject ‘race’ as a meaningful category of difference altogether." There are a lot of key pieces of information to pay attention to in this article but it will be useful in understanding how music can be used among youth to transcend racial identities. 

Critical Review on "African Musical Rhythm and Concepts of Time-Reckoning" by Alan Merriam

In this reading, Merriam distinguishes the concepts of time-reckoning from a Western point of view, a Western point of view in regards to African musical rhythm, and the African concept of time-reckoning (both in specific cases and as a generalization). He recognizes key assumptions that are commonly attributed to the African musical rhythm from an "outsider looking in" perspective. Merriam then is able to provide details about differing concepts of time-reckoning and how this can affect concepts of rhythm, culture, or music.

 The Western view tends to be characterized by separating time into a distance that moves further and further away from the starting point. In the Western view, time is viewed as a constant source divides up our moments, experiences, outlook on life and our daily functions. In applying the Western viewpoint on African musical rhythm, many scholars are able to distinguish Western terms that are associated with a rhythm or beat that is able to keep the performance in time, and serves a repetitive function. This Western viewpoint imposed on African musical rhythm does not compare the varying African concepts of time and how it applies to culture and music. In his final section, Merriam does observe Time from the African point of view, in which he distinguishes varying outlooks of time as: "non-repetitive" (454), "non linear" and "not reckoned as a distance", or "measured as an apparatus" (456). Merriam even mentions a scholar's general observation that time within Africa is organized primarily in terms of the past and present but never the future, and the concept of a numerical calendar is non existent. Considering the observations brought forward in this reading, I am curious to ask: Can we distinguish something unique about different cultures and musical styles within Africa by looking at the ways time is perceived, and compare it to the way the Western-world observes time and its impact on Western culture & music?

Final Project Proposal

For my final project proposal I would like to focus on Kwaito as a social and cultural tool for black South Africans. In looking at this, I would like to observe the ways in which the emergence and creation of Kwaito music has served as a way for people to voice discontent with issues occurring within society. I would further like to connect Kwaito with its significance in creating an identity for the people within the townships, with a particular focus on its important role for the youth.

Considering Kwaito's emergence from South Africa, and more specifically townships within South Africa, it is important to observe the historical effects of Apartheid, and the social and cultural implications of Apartheid in the emergence of Kwaito music.

Critical Review on "The Rapper as Modern" by Patricia Tang

In Tang's article, she examines the development of the hip-hop scene in Senegal by connecting the ways in which American hip-hop has been influenced by its African roots, and has then come full circle to influence Africa with an emergence of its popularity within 1980s Senegal. In examining the outburst of Senegalese rappers, she distinguishes the connections that are made between the traditional concept of "griot" or "djelly", and the notion of the "modern griot".

Tang portrays the notion of griot, as it is traditionally known, as a historically situated, romanticized concept "from which the modern griot has evolved over time" (81). However it is noted that the concept of griot has been falling out of popularity due to the negative connotations surrounding it.While hip-hop in America is viewed as the evolution of the African griot, couldn't it be argued that it is actually the Senegalese rappers who have evolved the role of griot into the "modern griot"? American artists, such as Kanye West, do not seem to even recognize the negative conception of griot that has been increasingly attributed to the term. In fact, Kanye West seems to further the negative image of the griot by associating the term with his own public statements and actions. Thus, shouldn't the Senagalese artists coin a new term for the "modern griot", just as they have done with mbalax, to distinguish it from the connotations and image of a traditional griot?

Preliminary Topic Proposal

A potential topic proposal I am interested in researching is how the development of Kwaito music has been created through a uniquely South African experience. Kwaito is not simply a style of music but a tool that was used by the people to create and define their identity. In my research I would like to observe how both "traditional" and "foreign" or "Western" musical influences have contributed to the formation of Kwaito over the years. I would also like to further understand how the music was used as a tool in other spheres of South African life, such as politics or social issues, and the implications that resulted from this.

In doing my research I am aiming to further understand Kwaito so that I may compare it to other incidences of music similarly being used as a resource for developing an identity or experience for a group of people. I would also like to see if the emergence of Kwaito has been received internationally or if its growth and influence is limited. I believe that in analyzing articles, videos, primary sources, and other resources I will be able to better understand the development of Kwaito, the impact and influence it has had in South Africa, and the potential trajectory in the future of Kwaito music.